The Evolution of Judaism: From Abraham to Jesus in Western Religious Thought

Discover how Judaism evolved from the time of Abraham and Moses to the era of Jesus. This concise overview explains how Jewish faith, law, and philosophy shaped the roots of Christianity and the foundations of Western religious thought.

Table of Contents:

Rise of Faith and Early Religious Philosophy

After Marcus Aurelius’s death, the Roman Empire began to collapse, creating deep fear and sadness among people.
Citizens started leaving traditional city gods and turned toward mystery cults that promised eternal life after death.
Faith began to replace reason, marking a shift in spiritual thinking.
Around this time, Neoplatonism emerged — a philosophy-based religion that attracted the educated upper class.
Simultaneously, Christianity was developing in its early stage.
Earlier, we studied Greek and Hellenistic philosophy — the latter being a blend of Greek and Roman thought.
Now, focus moves to the origins of Judaism and Christian philosophy, both forming part of the foundation of Western thought.
These traditions are often grouped as Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian thought, essential for understanding Western philosophy.
To study religious philosophy, one must adopt a neutral and open viewpoint, stepping outside personal identity.
Philosophers had multiple ideas of God — for example, Plato’s Demiurge, Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover, and the Stoic Logos.
Similarly, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam each have distinct concepts of God, understood only within their own frameworks.
Every religious statement can hold multiple meanings depending on context, making context the key to true understanding.

Summary:
This section explains the spiritual shift after Rome’s decline, the rise of faith-based systems like mystery cults and Neoplatonism, and the early development of Christianity. It stresses that understanding any religion or philosophy requires seeing it within its own context and framework.

Concept of God and Image Worship in Christianity

In Christianity, idol worship (moortipooja) is forbidden, while in Dharmic traditions, it is an accepted part of culture and devotion.
To understand this difference, we must look at the context and the concept of creation in each system.
According to Christian belief, God created the world ex nihilo — a Latin phrase meaning “out of nothing.”
This means God did not use any existing material or part of Himself; the world is a completely new creation.
Because of this, the world is separate from God — just as a painting is separate from the painter.
The world depends on God for its existence, but it is not divine and does not contain God’s essence.
This separation leads to the belief that nothing in the world is divine in itself.
Therefore, Christians do not worship material objects or natural elements; they pray directly to God, who exists in heaven and is beyond the physical world.

Summary:
This section explains why Christianity rejects idol worship. Since the world was created out of nothing (ex nihilo) and is separate from God, no object or being in the world contains divinity. Hence, Christians worship God directly, not His creation.

Dharmic View: God as All and Within All

In Dharmic traditions, it is believed that the world evolved from God, known as Brahman.
The word Brahman means “that which expands” — the ever-spreading, all-encompassing reality.
Just like a seed grows into a tree, the universe is seen as the expansion (vistar) of Brahman.
Therefore, the world is not separate from God — everything that exists is a part of the divine essence.
Just as many pots or toys can be made from the same clay, all things in the world have different forms and names but share one divine substance.
Because every atom of existence contains divinity, the whole world is sacred.
By focusing on or studying any object, one can understand an aspect of God, just as testing a drop of water can reveal the nature of the ocean.
This belief leads to the worship of all forms in Dharmic paths, since everything is divine — including human beings themselves.
Studying one’s own self (ātman) is therefore also a study of ultimate reality (Brahman), which is the essence of meditation (dhyān) or spiritual study (adhyātma vidyā).
Hence, idol worship in Dharmic tradition and its rejection in Christianity both arise from different frameworks — and both are valid within their own contexts.

Summary:
This section explains the Dharmic understanding of creation as the expansion of Brahman, where God and the world are one continuous reality. Every part of existence is divine, making worship of forms and self-realization natural expressions of devotion. Both Dharmic and Christian views are contextually correct within their own belief systems.

Immanent and Transcendent Nature of God

God, as the ultimate or highest reality, is generally described using two key terms — immanent and transcendent.
Immanent means “present within the world” — God’s presence in creation.
Transcendent means “beyond the world” — God existing beyond time, space, and matter.
Both Christian and Dharmic traditions believe that God is immanent and transcendent, but their meanings differ.
In Christian thought, God is not physically present in the world; He is immanent through His creative act.
Example: A painter is not inside the painting, but the act of painting reflects the painter’s creative presence.
In Dharmic philosophy, Brahman (the divine reality) is also immanent, but in a different sense.
Brahman is both nirguṇa (without attributes or form) and saguṇa (with form and qualities).
In the nirguṇa state, Brahman is transcendent — beyond space, time, and physical limits.
In the saguṇa state, Brahman is immanent — existing within all beings and things.

Summary:
This section explains how both Christianity and Dharmic traditions view God as immanent and transcendent, but in distinct ways. The Christian God is immanent through creation, while Brahman is immanent as the essence within everything and transcendent as the reality beyond all form.

Importance of Context in Religious Philosophy

If these concepts feel difficult, that’s okay — the key is to focus on context, not memorization.
Without understanding context, religious philosophy can seem contradictory or confusing.
In Christianity, the world is a new creation, meaning it has a beginning and an end — so time is linear.
In Dharmic traditions, time is cyclical — it repeats endlessly, through creation and dissolution.
Even religious language depends on this philosophical context.
In Christianity, texts or symbols like the Bible, Church, or Cross are called “holy” (pure or sacred) but not “divine”, since they do not contain God’s essence.
The word “divine” is used only for things that carry God’s direct qualities, such as divine grace or divine will.
In contrast, the Gita can be called both holy and divine, because it expresses spiritual purity and contains God’s essence, as the world and God are not separate in Dharmic understanding.
Only someone aware of the metaphysical background can truly understand the real meaning of religious terms.
For example, soul and ātman may look similar, but their meanings differ:
- The soul in Christianity does not reincarnate and is individual.
- The ātman in Indian philosophy is reborn repeatedly and is one universal self, shared by all.
To fully grasp this, one must study the difference between ātman and jīva, a key concept in Indian philosophy.

Summary:
This section highlights that context defines meaning in religious philosophy — from ideas of time and creation to the use of words like holy, divine, soul, and ātman. Understanding each concept within its own cultural and metaphysical framework is essential to avoid confusion and appreciate both Christian and Dharmic worldviews.

Key Differences Among Major Religious Traditions

Even within the Abrahamic religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — the concept of God differs greatly.
Though they all refer to one God, the descriptions vary: Yahweh, God, and Allah each have unique theological meanings.
The Christian God is Triune — one God in three forms: Father, Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit.
In Judaism and Islam, God is absolutely one, with no division or incarnation.
For Christians, Jesus is divine, seen as the incarnation of God or the Son of God.
In Islam, however, Jesus (Isa) is a prophet and messenger, not divine; comparing any human to God is strictly forbidden.
Christianity teaches that the world was created good but became corrupted by “original sin.”
In contrast, Judaism and Islam do not accept the concept of original sin — humans are born innocent, not sinful.
Similarly, Dharmic traditions hold that every being is born pure, with a true nature of sat-chit-ānanda (existence, consciousness, and bliss).
Each religion defines salvation differently:
- Judaism: through following the Torah (moral and religious law).
- Christianity: through faith in Jesus Christ.
- Islam: through submission to God’s will.
- Dharmic traditions: through self-realization (ātma-jñāna).
Therefore, to understand any religious philosophy, one must first know its foundation and worldview, and study it from within its own context.
Without this internal perspective, any comparison or interpretation becomes flawed and misleading.

Summary:
This section outlines how different religions define God, sin, and salvation according to their own frameworks. It shows that while Abrahamic faiths and Dharmic paths share moral aims, their core assumptions about human nature, divinity, and redemption differ deeply. True understanding requires studying each tradition in its own context and philosophy.

Interpreting Religion: The Need for Understanding

Every religion contains many interpretations and viewpoints, making the study of philosophy a complex and endless process.
Each religion has numerous scholars and thinkers who interpret sacred texts in different ways, creating multiple branches within the same faith.
For example, the concept of original sin in Christianity has five major interpretations, and the idea of God–world separation has three.
These variations arise because religious ideas can be understood differently depending on context, culture, and perspective.
Much of the confusion also comes from language and translation, since scriptures were written in Hebrew, Arabic, or Sanskrit, each carrying unique meanings that are hard to translate exactly.
Disagreements often center on how to interpret a single word or phrase, as language shapes meaning.
The goal of studying philosophy or religion is not to accept or reject any text — that is easy.
The real task is to understand, which requires reading deeply, comparing ideas, and engaging in thoughtful discussion.
True understanding demands time, effort, and patience, not quick judgment.

Summary:
This section emphasizes that religious understanding is not about belief or rejection, but about patient exploration. Since every tradition has many interpretations and translations, genuine study requires open-minded reading, comparison, and dialogue to grasp the deeper meanings behind each belief system.

Importance of Broad Understanding in Philosophy

Some students may feel religion doesn’t interest them, but studying it is not about personal preference — it’s about gaining a comprehensive understanding of the world.
The world has many interconnected aspects — religion, science, politics, society, history, and environment — all of which shape human thought and behavior.
Whether we like it or not, these aspects influence our lives, because they are part of both society and the human mind.
For example, saying “I’m not interested in politics” doesn’t protect anyone from political impacts; we still live within political systems.
Similarly, even if one finds social sciences boring, we are all members of society, and must understand its basic functioning.
Therefore, to truly understand human beings, society, and the world, we must have at least a basic awareness of all major fields of knowledge.
This doesn’t mean becoming an expert in every subject, but knowing the key ideas that form their foundation.
Such awareness helps keep the mind open, encourages critical and deeper thinking, and enhances one’s ability to understand connections between ideas.
For anyone studying philosophy, this broad and balanced outlook is essential, as philosophy seeks to understand the whole of reality, not just isolated parts.

Summary:
This section reminds students that understanding the world and human thought requires knowledge of all major fields, not just personal interests. Religion, politics, and science all shape our existence. A philosopher must think broadly, developing an open, well-informed mind to truly grasp the nature of life and society.

Beginning of Christianity and Jewish Roots

The word Christianity comes from Christ, meaning “the anointed one” — a person chosen by God for a special purpose.
This title refers to Jesus, known as Jesus Christ, whose name forms the basis of the religion Christianity.
However, Jesus himself was not a Christian — he was a Jew, and his first followers were also Jews.
Therefore, to understand Christian philosophy, we must first understand the history and beliefs of the Jewish people.
Jewish history spans over 4000 years, filled with many ups and downs, but we will focus only on what is philosophically important.
The God of the Jews is called Yahweh — a name revealed by God Himself when He spoke to Moses.
The basic meaning of Yahweh is “I Am”, which can be understood as pure being or existence itself.
This idea shows that God is self-existent — not created, not dependent on anything else.
Out of respect, Jews do not use or speak this name, following the Ten Commandments, which include the rule not to misuse God’s name.
The Jewish concept of God (Yahweh) is very different from the Greek gods, who were many, limited, and human-like.

Summary:
This section introduces the origins of Christianity through Jewish history. It explains that Jesus was a Jew, and his teachings emerged from the Jewish tradition centered on Yahweh, the eternal and self-existent God. Understanding this background is crucial for grasping the philosophical roots of Christianity.

From Polytheism to Monotheism: The Jewish Concept of God

The Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians were all polytheists — believers in many gods (poly = many, theos = god).
Almost all ancient religions followed polytheism, where each god had a specific role or domain.
In contrast, Judaism, and later Christianity and Islam, introduced monotheism — the belief in only one God (mono = one).
This concept of one all-powerful God developed gradually in the Babylonian and Mesopotamian region, where polytheism was once dominant.
The Jewish God (Yahweh) is called all-powerful because He has no limits and no rivals.
Unlike Greek gods, who had restricted powers — for example, Zeus, Hera, or Poseidon each ruled over a specific realm — Yahweh’s power is absolute and universal.
Even Plato’s Demiurge and Aristotle’s God had limitations:
- Plato’s Demiurge shaped the material world based on pre-existing Forms.
- Aristotle’s Unmoved Mover influenced motion but remained detached and impersonal.
In contrast, the Jewish God is both creator and personal — He created the world out of nothing (ex nihilo) and interacts with human beings.
He listens, responds, and cares about what happens in the world — unlike the distant gods of Greek philosophy.

Summary:
This section explains the shift from polytheism to monotheism, highlighting the unique Jewish view of God as one, unlimited, and personal. Unlike Greek or philosophical gods, Yahweh is the creator of everything, deeply involved in human life — a foundation that later shaped Christianity and Islam.

The Covenant Between God and Abraham

The story begins when the all-powerful God (Yahweh) speaks to a man named Abram, who lived around 1800 BCE in the city of Ur with his wife and father.
Later, Abram and his family moved from Ur to Haran.
Abram believed in one God, and Yahweh instructed him to go to the land of Canaan, which is known today as Israel.
God made a promise (covenant) with Abram — that his descendants would become a great nation that would guide the world.
At that time, Abram was 75 years old and had no children, yet he trusted God’s word and journeyed with his wife to Canaan.
When they arrived, God changed their names — Abram became Abraham, and his wife Sarai became Sarah.
Because Sarah could not have children, she suggested that Abraham have a child with her maidservant, Hagar.
Abraham agreed, and Hagar gave birth to a son named Ishmael, who was also blessed by God.
Later, when Abraham was nearly 100 years old, God appeared again and promised him a son through Sarah.
This promise was fulfilled when Sarah gave birth to Isaac, whose descendants would become the chosen nation in Jewish tradition.

Summary:
This section narrates the beginning of the Abrahamic covenant, where Yahweh promises Abraham that his descendants will form a great nation. Despite his old age and Sarah’s barrenness, Abraham’s faith and obedience mark the foundation of Judaism, and later influence Christianity and Islam, through his two sons — Isaac and Ishmael.

The Two Lineages of Abraham: Jews and Muslims

Abraham had two sons — Isaac and Ishmael — and from them, his family divided into two major branches.
The Jews trace their ancestry through Isaac’s line, while the Muslims trace theirs through Ishmael’s line.
Therefore, both Jews and Muslims are considered part of Abraham’s family, sharing a common origin.
This connection can be understood in two ways:
- Biological — based on blood relation, where one is born into the family.
- Spiritual — based on faith and belief, where one joins the community by choice.
According to the story, tension arose between Sarah (Isaac’s mother) and Hagar (Ishmael’s mother).
Sarah asked Abraham to send Hagar and Ishmael away, though Abraham initially hesitated.
Later, God instructed Abraham to follow Sarah’s request, and he sent them away.
The tradition says Ishmael traveled to the Arabian region, where he married and had twelve sons, who became the princes of twelve Arab tribes.
This version is based on the Jewish narrative, while the Islamic account differs slightly in details but keeps the core story similar.

Summary:
This section explains how the descendants of Abraham’s two sons, Isaac and Ishmael, became the ancestors of Jews and Muslims. Despite some differences in interpretation between Jewish and Islamic traditions, both faiths share a common spiritual and historical link through Abraham, the foundational figure of their beliefs.

The Test of Abraham’s Faith

A crucial event in Jewish tradition occurs when God tests Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice his son, Isaac.
This story, known as “Abraham Tested,” is central to the Jewish understanding of faith and obedience.
God commands Abraham to take Isaac to a mountain in the region of Jerusalem and offer him as a sacrifice.
Abraham obeys without question, binds Isaac, and prepares to sacrifice him.
Just as he raises the knife, an angel calls out, telling him to stop — it was a test of faith, not a demand for death.
The angel declares that Abraham has proven his complete trust in God, and God blesses him, promising that his descendants will be countless, like the stars in the sky or grains of sand in the desert.
This act symbolizes absolute faith and surrender, which becomes a foundational model of devotion in Abrahamic religions.
The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard explored this event deeply in his book Fear and Trembling, using it to question the nature of faith.
He asked: how can someone willing to sacrifice his own son be seen as a hero of faith rather than a moral criminal?
Kierkegaard explained that faith and reason often conflict — where reason says “no”, faith says “yes”. Faith, therefore, is a paradox that transcends logical understanding.

Summary:
This section presents the story of Abraham’s test of faith, where his willingness to sacrifice Isaac becomes a symbol of pure trust in God. Philosophers like Kierkegaard later used this story to explore the tension between faith and reason, showing that true faith often demands belief beyond logic.

Jacob’s Transformation into Israel

Isaac married Rebecca, and they had two sons — Esau and Jacob.
Esau was strong and outdoorsy, while Jacob was calm and intelligent; the two brothers did not get along well.
When Isaac grew old and prepared to give his final blessing to Esau, Rebecca tricked him so that Jacob received the blessing instead.
When Esau discovered this, he became furious, forcing Jacob to flee to Haran for safety.
In Haran, Jacob married Leah and Rachel, and with Rachel he had a son named Joseph, who later played a key role in Jewish history.
After many years, Jacob decided to return to Canaan and reconcile with Esau.
The night before their meeting, a mysterious figure appeared and wrestled with Jacob all night.
By morning, Jacob was injured but refused to give up, saying, “I will not let you go until you bless me.”
The being revealed himself as an angel of God and blessed Jacob with a new name — Israel.
The name Israel means “one who struggles with God” or “wrestles with the divine.”
This event symbolizes the spiritual struggle between human limitation and divine will — a central theme in the Jewish faith.

Summary:
This section recounts how Jacob, after struggling with an angel of God, was renamed Israel, meaning “one who wrestles with God.” The story marks the birth of Israel as both a name and a nation, symbolizing humanity’s ongoing spiritual struggle and perseverance in faith.

Jacob’s Struggle and the Human Condition

The modern psychologist Jordan Peterson wrote a book titled We Who Wrestle With God, inspired by Jacob’s story from the Bible.
In this work, Peterson explores the human condition through biblical stories, using them to reflect on life’s deepest questions.
He discusses universal struggles — such as finding meaning in life, dealing with faith, suffering, and understanding God’s role in human existence.
The story of Jacob captures these same themes: Jacob wrestles with God, experiences inner transformation, and ultimately receives a blessing.
This fight symbolizes a spiritual struggle, not a physical one — representing humanity’s search for truth, purpose, and reconciliation with the divine.
According to Peterson, this struggle is not limited to religious believers; every person faces existential questions about identity, morality, and meaning.
Jacob’s wrestling is thus a metaphor for the inner battle every human faces — between doubt and faith, weakness and strength, suffering and growth.
The story teaches that through struggle and perseverance, individuals can reach spiritual maturity and discover their true self.

Summary:
This section connects Jacob’s struggle with God to modern human experience, as explained by Jordan Peterson. It shows that everyone, religious or not, wrestles with life’s deeper questions, and like Jacob, can find growth and transformation through that inner struggle.

Joseph’s Journey: From Slavery to Leadership in Egypt

Joseph, the son of Jacob (Israel), was betrayed by his brothers, who sold him into slavery out of jealousy.
He was taken to Egypt, where he began working as a household manager for a powerful man.
Later, Joseph was wrongly imprisoned, yet his wisdom and leadership made him trusted even inside the jail, where he became its manager.
While in prison, Joseph interpreted the dreams of two prisoners, and his interpretations proved to be accurate.
News of his ability reached the Pharaoh (king of Egypt), who had been troubled by a mysterious dream no one could explain.
Joseph explained that the dream meant seven years of abundance would be followed by seven years of famine (drought).
He advised the Pharaoh to store food during the good years to prepare for the famine — a plan showing both practical wisdom and divine insight.
Impressed by Joseph’s intelligence, the Pharaoh made him governor over all Egypt, in charge of managing resources and food.
When the famine arrived, people from many regions, including Canaan, came to Egypt to buy grain.
Among them were Joseph’s own brothers, who did not initially recognize him.
Eventually, Joseph revealed his identity and forgave them, reuniting the family.
The Pharaoh, pleased with Joseph’s service, invited his entire family to settle in Egypt, giving them land and security.

Summary:
This section tells how Joseph’s faith, intelligence, and integrity transformed him from a slave to a ruler in Egypt. His wise interpretation of the Pharaoh’s dream saved Egypt from famine and led to the reunion of his family, laying the foundation for the Israelites’ life in Egypt — an important stage in Jewish history.

Moses and the Liberation of the Hebrews

After many generations, the descendants of Israel (Jacob) lived comfortably in Egypt.
Over time, a new Pharaoh rose to power who did not know Joseph and began to distrust the Hebrews (Israelites).
Out of fear that they might become too powerful, he enslaved them, forcing them into hard labor.
The Pharaoh then gave a cruel order: all newborn Hebrew boys must be killed at birth.
During this time, a child named Moses was born. To save him, his mother placed him in a basket and set it afloat on the river Nile.
The basket was found by the Pharaoh’s daughter, who rescued and adopted Moses, raising him in the royal palace.
As an adult, Moses witnessed an Egyptian beating a Hebrew slave and, in anger, killed the Egyptian. Fearing punishment, he fled Egypt to live in exile.
Years later, God appeared to Moses and commanded him to return to Egypt to free the Hebrews from slavery.
Moses obeyed and confronted the Pharaoh, warning him that enslaving God’s people would bring disaster to Egypt.
When the Pharaoh refused, Egypt suffered a series of plagues, each worse than the last.
The final plague caused the death of every firstborn Egyptian, including the Pharaoh’s son.
Horrified and defeated, the Pharaoh finally agreed to release the Hebrews, ending their long period of slavery.

Summary:
This section tells the powerful story of Moses, the chosen leader who was saved as a baby and later guided by God to free the Israelites from Egyptian slavery. His courage and obedience to God mark a turning point in Jewish history — the beginning of the Exodus, symbolizing the victory of faith, freedom, and divine justice.

The Exodus and the Birth of the Jewish Nation

After being freed from Egypt, Moses led thousands of Hebrews toward the Promised Land, Canaan.
However, the Pharaoh changed his mind and sent his army to pursue them.
Then came a miraculous event: the waters of a great sea or river parted, creating a dry path for the Hebrews to cross.
Once the Egyptian army followed, the waters closed, destroying them. This event is known as the Exodus, meaning the departure from Egypt and slavery.
During their journey, the Hebrews camped at Mount Sinai, where God spoke to Moses and gave him the Ten Commandments — a set of moral and spiritual laws.
These commandments included teachings such as:
- Do not misuse God’s name.
- Do not steal, lie, or worship idols.
- Honor God alone and live a moral life.
These divine laws became the foundation of Torah, the central text of Jewish moral teaching.
The Hebrews wandered for 40 years in the desert before finally entering Canaan.
Before his death, Moses appointed Joshua as the next leader, and tradition says that God showed Moses the vast land that would belong to Israel.
Under King David and King Solomon, the Israelites experienced a period of peace and prosperity, but later faced invasions and hardships.
They were successively conquered by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Alexander the Great’s army, and eventually became part of the Roman Empire.

Summary:
This section describes the Exodus, the defining event of Jewish history, when Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt and received the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. These laws became the core of Jewish ethics and faith. Despite later struggles under empires like Babylon and Rome, the Exodus remains the enduring symbol of freedom, faith, and divine guidance in Judaism.

The Birth of Jesus and the Hope for a Messiah

Throughout Jewish history, the people of Israel rarely experienced lasting peace or stability.
Constant political struggles and foreign domination — from Babylon to Rome — created deep suffering and a longing for deliverance.
In this context, the Jews began to hope that God would send a special person, a Messiah, who would free them from foreign powers and restore the peace and stability once enjoyed under King David.
It was during this period of expectation and turmoil that Jesus was born.
Scholars estimate his birth around 4 BCE, during the reign of Emperor Augustus of Rome, though some sources place it anywhere between 7 BCE and 35 CE.
These exact dates are not philosophically important, as the focus is on ideas and teachings, not historical precision.
According to traditional accounts, Jesus lived a short but profound life, teaching about faith, morality, and divine love.
His life ended through crucifixion, a Roman method of execution, around 29 CE, during the rule of Emperor Tiberius.
The term “crucifixion” is used instead of “death” because it carries deep spiritual and symbolic meaning in the Christian context — representing sacrifice, redemption, and divine forgiveness.

Summary:
This section explains the historical and spiritual setting of Jesus’s birth, when the Jewish people were longing for a Messiah to restore peace. Born around 4 BCE, Jesus’s life and crucifixion became the foundation of Christian faith, symbolizing hope, salvation, and the triumph of spirit over suffering.

Crucifixion: The Central Event in Christian Theology

During the Roman Empire, crucifixion was considered the highest and most severe punishment — a slow, public, and extremely painful form of execution.
The process had four main steps and was designed not just to punish, but also to terrify and humiliate the condemned person.
First, the person was whipped brutally with a special whip made of leather cords embedded with metal and bone pieces, tearing the flesh.
Second, the condemned person had to carry a wooden crossbeam on his back to the execution site, usually a public place — such as a city gate, market square, or a hilltop — where everyone could see.
Third, the victim was tied or nailed to the cross using ropes or iron nails, stretching the body painfully.
Finally, the person was left to die slowly, often taking hours or even days, from exhaustion, suffocation, and extreme pain.
This same fate befell Jesus, around 29–30 CE, making his Crucifixion and Resurrection the core events of Christianity.
The Crucifixion represents suffering, sacrifice, and redemption, while the Resurrection symbolizes victory over death and eternal life — together forming the foundation of Christian theology and philosophy.
Historically, many others were crucified by Rome, such as Spartacus and his 6,000 soldiers, as well as Saint Peter, one of Jesus’s closest followers.
According to tradition, Saint Peter requested to be crucified upside down, believing he was not worthy to die the same way as Jesus.
Such stories highlight how crucifixion became both a symbol of suffering and a mark of ultimate faith in the Christian world.

Summary:
This section explains the Roman practice of crucifixion and its role in Christian philosophy. The Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus stand as the most important events in Christianity — symbolizing sacrifice, faith, and divine triumph over death. Through these, the cross became the eternal emblem of hope and redemption.

From Jewish Reform to the Rise of Christianity

After Jesus’s crucifixion, the number of his followers began to grow, though slowly at first.
By 380 CE, Christianity was declared the official religion of the Roman Empire, yet its spread remained gradual and complex.
It is important to remember that Jesus was born a Jew, and his goal was not to start a new religion, but to reform the Jewish faith.
He sought to correct the weaknesses within the existing Jewish religious system, which had become focused mainly on rituals and external practices.
The Jews, meanwhile, were struggling to understand their own suffering — asking why the chosen people of God were facing so many hardships.
Their first belief was that God was angry because they had worshipped other gods.
The prophet Isaiah explained that God used other nations as instruments to punish the Israelites for their disobedience.
To regain God’s favor, the people began to strictly follow the divine laws — the Ten Commandments and other moral rules given to Moses.
Over time, new prophets emerged, teaching that God desired inner transformation, not just external obedience.
These prophets emphasized that true faith comes from a pure heart, justice, and goodness, not from mechanical rituals or fear of punishment.
This gradual spiritual shift — from external law to inner faith — set the stage for the kind of moral and spiritual reform that Jesus later preached.

Summary:
This section explains how Jesus’s message arose from within Judaism as a call for spiritual reform. The Jewish prophets had already begun shifting focus from ritual obedience to inner morality and sincerity. Jesus continued this evolution, emphasizing love, justice, and purity of heart — principles that became the foundation of Christian teaching.

Evolving Understanding of God in the Old Testament

In the Old Testament, the nature of God appears to evolve gradually over time, reflecting a deepening understanding of divine character and morality.
When God spoke to Moses, He appeared in a dense cloud, with lightning and thunder, symbolizing power, fear, and authority — a God who commanded through majesty and awe.
Many generations later, Prophet Elijah experienced God in a very different way — not through storms or earthquakes, but through a gentle and quiet voice, showing that divine presence could also be peaceful and compassionate.
Another prophet, Amos, emphasized God’s justice and moral concern. He condemned the greedy and corrupt, those who exploited the poor or used religion for personal gain.
Amos declared that God rejects hollow rituals — prayers, songs, and sacrifices performed by people whose hearts are corrupt.
He made it clear that true worship requires honesty, compassion, and justice, not mere ritual performance.
Similarly, Prophet Hosea conveyed God’s message that He desires love (compassion) and goodness, not sacrifices.
Prophet Micah reinforced this idea, saying that what God truly wants from people is love, kindness, and humility, not ritual offerings.
These teachings reveal a shift from external religion to inner morality, showing that God values purity of heart over ritualistic display.

Summary:
This section shows how the Old Testament prophets transformed the understanding of God’s nature — from a powerful and distant ruler to a compassionate, moral presence. Prophets like Amos, Hosea, and Micah emphasized that true faith lies in love, goodness, and justice, not in empty rituals. This moral awakening laid the foundation for Jesus’s later teachings on inner purity and compassion.

Rituals vs. Inner Faith: The Message of Deuteronomy

In ancient Judaism, a major spiritual conflict arose — whether to focus on external rituals or on inner intentions and sincerity of heart.
The earlier teachings emphasized ritual obedience, while later prophetic messages called for inner transformation and moral purity.
To resolve this tension, the final book of the Torah, called Deuteronomy, was written.
Though the name sounds complex, Deuteronomy simply means “The Second Law.”
The book attempts to harmonize ritual practice with heartfelt devotion, teaching that faithful love and obedience to God must work together.
It presents the idea that rituals are not ends in themselves — they are a means to express love and faithfulness toward God.
However, this synthesis eventually turned into a rigid legal system, where every small detail became part of a fixed religious code that could not be altered.
Over time, people began focusing more on rules than on the spiritual essence behind them.
Jesus, too, recognized this problem — he believed that strict rule-following had caused people to miss the true meaning of God’s message.
His aim was to reform Judaism by restoring the inner spirit of faith — love, mercy, and understanding — over mere ritual performance.
In his later teachings, Jesus emphasized the heart of religion rather than its external forms, continuing the prophetic call for inner transformation.

Summary:
This section explains how Deuteronomy (“The Second Law”) sought to balance ritual observance with inner devotion. While it united law and love, it also led to a rigid religious system, where rules overshadowed spirituality. Jesus’s reformist teachings later revived the true essence of faith — focusing on inner purity, compassion, and the real meaning of God’s message.

Context Matters in Philosophy

Western texts often skip cultural and historical background because authors assume their readers already know these details.
This omission does not mean those details are unimportant for understanding ideas.
Many Indian teachers also assume students know the background or think it unnecessary, which is a bad teaching practice.
If you are from India, you likely understand cultural references (for example Angad ka pair, Lakshman Rekha, Kumbhkaran).
Those same references can be confusing for non-Indian readers who lack that cultural knowledge.
Likewise, Western cultural phrases like Achilles heel, Pandora’s box, or Trojan horse may be unknown to some Indian students.
Teachers should not assume prior knowledge; they must provide the basic background so all students can follow.
Good philosophical teaching includes clear context so ideas are accessible across different cultural backgrounds.

Summary:
This section stresses that context is essential in philosophy: authors and teachers often assume cultural knowledge, but that assumption can exclude learners. Instructors should give basic background so students from any culture can understand and engage with philosophical texts.

Importance of Cultural and Conceptual Awareness in Philosophy

Every culture contains key religious and philosophical terms that outsiders may not know — such as Torah, Prophet, Resurrection, or Original Sin.
There are many other important ideas like The Fall of Man, The Second Coming, or cultural phrases like “The Big Brother is watching you.”
These words frequently appear in Western philosophy and literature, often carrying deep symbolic or historical meanings.
For example:
- Albert Camus used the myth of Sisyphus to explore the meaning of human struggle.
- Nietzsche referenced Prometheus, symbolizing rebellion and creativity.
- Freud discussed Oedipus, representing hidden desires and the unconscious mind.
Understanding such references helps readers grasp the full meaning of philosophical texts.
Teachers and writers should therefore explain the origin and context of these terms, so students can interpret them correctly.
From today’s lecture, you now know the story of Abraham, his test of faith, and how his descendants led to the Abrahamic religions.
You also learned about Jacob’s struggle with God, his renaming as Israel, and Moses’s liberation of the Jews from Egypt — known as the Exodus.
The Ten Commandments, given to Moses, form the Torah, the foundation of Jewish moral law.
These historical and cultural details give you the context needed to understand Western religious philosophy more deeply.
When you read philosophical works later, these stories and terms will help you recognize references and connect ideas across traditions.

Summary:
This section emphasizes that understanding religious and cultural background is essential for studying Western philosophy. Knowing stories like those of Abraham, Jacob, and Moses, and concepts such as the Torah, Original Sin, or Resurrection, allows students to engage more meaningfully with philosophical texts. Cultural literacy and context are key tools for deep and accurate understanding.

philoparadoxia